Develop a three year professional action plan Essay

Build up a multi year proficient activity plan - Essay Example Medicinal services would in certainty be the main business in the United States. Activities research-type examination and application for the mind boggling issues included would be good for any medicinal services framework. The biggest issue, there are insufficient individuals considering professions in the medicinal services industry. As of now, the medicinal services industry in the United States faces a large number of similar issues going up against different enterprises, however there would be some critical political contrasts. All the while, human services would be illustrative of a colossal fragment of the economy, and it needs our assistance. The individuals filling in as a major aspect of the medicinal services framework are commonly committed to offering the most ideal assistance. The issue is, the workforce and, all the more critically, the executives, don't have the vital preparing or information to utilize the accessible assets. Under these specific conditions, it would be far fetched that any private industry would get by with the degree of waste and wastefulness regularly found in social insurance. Social insurance is a systematic no other realized plan of action. There would be different chiefs with clashing objectives and destinations. The primary thought ought to be the intense consideration clinic. As of now, most medical clinics in the United States, and on account of Canada basically all, are not-revenue driven, autonomous companies. Glouberman and Mintzberg would recognize four diverse administration bunches for which they use the term four universes inside the medical clinic condition. Clinical tasks are overseen in a descending concentration because of specialists and medical attendants and their attention on quiet consideration. Supervisors and trustees center in an upward thought toward the individuals who control or store the foundation. In addition, workers, for this situation chiefs and attendants, would rehearse some administration inside the foundation, while specialists and trustees would oversee outside the emergency clinic as from the outside in, since they are in fact not representatives and are along these lines autonomous of its conventional power. The universe of fix, which is portrayed by short, escalated and basically non-individual clinical intercessions, would be viewed as a quadrant of this specific perfect. Normally, North American specialists would not work straightforwardly for the clinics. They are in actuality private business people who have confirmation benefits at a clinic. There are a rare sorts of people who might comprise as salaried medical clinic representatives, yet the lion's share would in certainty reliably deal with an expense for-administration premise with the emergency clinic. To augment their salary, specialists would regularly show up at whatever point the patient requires a fix and intercession or treatment of some structure. Starting here they would push ahead. As a potential medicinal services administrator it is ideal to comprehend the political and different interrelationships between specialists, attendants, emergency clinic faculty and organization. Human services administrators face another part, which speaks to the universe of care. This is the world spoken to by attendants. Medical caretakers are suppliers who work legitimately for the clinic on pay and regularly represent the biggest part of its working spending plan. They work in their own inside administration progression and have a one of a kind relationship with patients. They are

An Analysis of Representation of Masculinity free essay sample

These magazines are the February 201 1 version of Kerning and the March 008 release of NAME, isolated by three years to likewise think about if ideas have changed throughout the years, I will intently examinations the message these magazines convey to the two people and how it impacts them both, regardless of whether it gives them desires for what's in store in a man or it gives them yearnings to accomplish the objective of what these messages put over. As said in the Boys to Men: Media Messages about Masculinity the medias depiction of men will in general fortify mens social strength. The idea of manliness has been around for several years.There have been numerous cleans and speculations that have gotten from this thought of manliness and as of late these hypotheses have been applied to music as a connect to manliness. Cheats idea of arrangements is epitomized in Rock Music as the guitar can be believed to be phallic image, an image of predominance and force, something that men of today, and hundreds of years before today have endeavors to have. We will compose a custom exposition test on An Analysis of Representation of Masculinity or then again any comparable subject explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page In 1 999, Children Now, a California-based association that analyzes the effect of media on kids and youth, discharged a report qualified Boys for Men: Media Messages about Masculinity.The report contends that the medias blood vessel of men will in general fortify mens social strength. The report sees that: * most of male characters in media are hetero * male characters are all the more regularly connected with the open circle of work, as opposed to the private circle of the home, and issues and issues identified with work are more huge than individual issues * Non-white male characters are bound to encounter individual issues and are bound to utilize physical animosity or viciousness to unravel those problems.In 1 952 NAME was discharged and turned into the most powerful music magazine in the UK veering Indies/awesome music. The magazine is referred to today as one of the top netting magazines in the nation being steady rivalry for the other music magazines distributed. Much the sam e as each other magazine, the intro page is an indispensable piece of the magazine. It is the principal part of the magazine perusers will see so consequently should catch the attributes individuals search for in magazines to guarantee purchase.NAME covers, highlight similar belief systems every week; a mainstream craftsman or gathering (typically male), the shading plan red, highly contrasting (except if it is a unique release, where case the shading plan will exhilarate to the primary article or the topic of the issue) lastly the pole head in it notable text style and shading. The February 2008 issue spread presents its organization in its own individual style in an approach to make it a one of a kind magazine. The focal point of this issue is the primary picture of appreciate male specialists; they give direct eye to eye connection with the crowd looking down at the camera, introducing the possibility of them being prevailing over the reader.The men are wearing dark attire, a baffling and predominant shading which makes a picture of insubordination and concealing their thought processes from the world. It is said that Cultural sorts ? for example, the man of honor, the ordinary man, or the renegade are the staple portrayal of sex in well known fiction since they are effectively unmistakable and consolidate a scope of significant perspectives and qualities meaning, that the manner in which magazine makers present the men on their spread decides how their crowd will perceive the qualities and mentalities the makers are attempting to depict to them.The designs utilized on the intro page likewise assumes a Vital job in how manliness is spoken to in this magazine. As a matter of first importance, the spread consistently includes the notable and effectively cognizable pole head, arranged at the upper left hand Corner Of the page, in a huge, strong, square textual style. This huge and strong content grabs the attention of the crowd and will accordingly be the main thing that individuals will perceive the magazine by. What's more, the lash lines, put differently around the fundamental picture, permit the crowd to acquire data about the issue and its content.An case of this would be Tom Clark VS.. Fairs Rooter which catches the crowds eye and the way that the names are of two men picks up the intrigue of men as they can quickly identify with them. By utilizing the pole VS. additionally gives the impression of battling and savagery, which is known to be a manly propensity as it identifies with strength and control, two things men seek to turn into. The Marxist idea of domineering manliness States that the man ought to have; Physical power and control, word related accomplishment, familial man controlled society, frontiersman-boat and heterosexuality.NAME is exceptionally ground-breaking and notable in the music business, particularly the Indies kind of it, Indies (free) guitar rock is a post-punk lower of autonomous or elective stone, including predominantly white, male gatherings playing essentially electric guitars, bass and drums these current what can be viewed as cliché qualities of Indies music giving that music is a subject for men. Kerning started distributions on seventh June 1981 , as a class explicit magazine focused on the ascent of British overwhelming metal and other hard rock acts and has proceeded to today and has become the fundamental rivalry for NAME.The format of Kerning and NAME are genuinely comparable, and the magazine covers themselves share certain shows. So also to NAME the focal point Of the spread is the fundamental picture of the lead artist of the gathering Black Veil Brides Andy Barriers, in a nearby shot looking straightforwardly into the camera to pick up eye to eye connection with the crowd giving the feeling that Hess taking a gander at them by and by. His impression is one of dissatisfaction and challenge, an endeavor to persuade the crowd to purchase the magazine while appearing to be baffled by the way that the crowd should be persuaded to get it instead of consequently getting it. This difficult articulation requests to men in light of the fact that challenge urges them to introduce their manliness by acknowledging the demand, along these lines making them purchase the choking causing it to appear as though the distributers of the magazine appear to realize how to control their crowd. His dark cowhide apparel presents the possibility of disobedience and defying from the guidelines of society, being able to control your own life and have power instead of be controlled and ruled which is actually what men need, they need a sentiment of intensity and strength over others to accomplish this significant level of masculinity.The designs utilized on this spread have indistinguishable shows from the past magazine, it is attractive, utilizing differentiating hues and a strong textual style to stand apart getting he perusers catching the perusers eye right away. In any case, one fundamental show that differs is the format Of the spread lines. Kerning contains significan tly more pugs giving additional data and offers accessible for the peruser carrying with them an intrigue to the crowd at free banners and opportunities to win rivalries giving the possibility of prevalence at the chance of being a winner.The magazine utilizes a few riddle codes in each tie line as it makes a need to realize all the more conjuring the peruser to discover increasingly through purchasing the magazine. This magazine spread is basic to encoding how manliness is connected and associated with music, particularly option and exciting music as Studies address how manliness and sexuality are spoken to in rock execution; both musically and outwardly. Some of these investigations use instances of cook rock or substantial metal as these melodic styles present away from Of male presentation, utilizing macho postures and scratching vocals.

Corporate Agriculture and Environmental Degradation

Corporate Agriculture and Environmental Degradation Corporate Agriculture and Environmental Degradation Corporate Agriculture and Environmental Degradation Corporate Agriculture and Environmental Degradation

Essay on Psychology The Study of the Mind and Behavior

Psychology Concepts: Psychology is a term derived from two Greek words that translate to life explanation, which makes it an important element of daily life. The field of psychology can be described as a discipline that focuses on the study of mind and behavior. This discipline is characterized by several concepts and approaches that are used by psychologists in understanding human behavior. Since psychology is a broad field, psychologists not only use these concepts and approaches but also conduct scientific research that enables them to understand human behavior. Some of the most common psychological concepts that are used to modify or change an individual’s behavior include operant conditioning, positive and negative punishment,†¦show more content†¦An example of the use of this method is when my friend was recently grounded by his parents for misbehaving in school. While positive punishment helps in modifying behavior, it may cause an individual to be embarr assed and contribute to other negative behavior, which is a major ethical concern. On the contrary, negative punishment is a method that also contributes to weakening a behavior though it lessens or eliminates something pleasant. It involves taking away something desirable or good from an individual in order to discourage him/her from engaging in a particular behavior. For instance, one of my classmate’s phone rang in class despite being told by teachers not to bring our phones to class. Consequently, the teacher took away the phone from my classmate in order to discourage that behavior. The ethical concern that may emerge from using negative punishment is that it does not teach the victim of undesired behavior how to change his/her behavior. Positive reinforcement involves strengthening or fostering desired behavior through the addition or increase of a pleasant incentive. Positive reinforcement tends to be a more effective means of behavior modification that the two ty pes of punishment. The addition or increase of incentive when using positive reinforcement is geared towards encouraging the occurrence of the behavior in the future. For instance, positive reinforcement is used by anShow MoreRelatedPsychology Is The Study Of The Mind And Behavior1769 Words   |  8 PagesIn simple definition, psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Psychology is a very recently made science, and it includes many sub-fields. The newly-made science evolved out of biology and philosophy can be traced far back to early Greek whose thinkers include Aristotle and Socrates. The science is unique because it studies something abstract and can’t be seen physically perceived such as thoughts, memory, cognition, and emotions. Psychology is very similar to any other science by theRead MorePsychology Is A Study Of Mind And Behavior3879 Words   |  16 Pagesduring high school he made a decision to study psychology instead. â€Å" I knew all along that I want to become a psychologist and that is what often helped me when I had a hard time seeing the light at the end of the tunnel† says Dr. Bob. Definition Psychology is a study of mind and behavior. Psychological research is mostly focused on the relationship between thought, behavior and emotion; how one influences the otherRead MorePsychology Is The Study Of The Mind And Behavior1389 Words   |  6 PagesPsychology is the study of the mind and behaviour. Since Psychology first emerged there has been ,many differing schools of Psychology each with different theories in which to understand human behaviour. In this essay I will explain the four major schools of psychology including psychoanalysis, behaviourism, biological and cognitive, and the major influences behind each such as Freud. Psychoanalysis is a school of thought first developed by Sigmeund Freud(1856-1939) one of the most influentialRead MorePsychology Is The Scientific Study Of The Mind And Behavior986 Words   |  4 PagesA Look into Psychology Psychology is known to be the scientific study of the human’s mind and behavior. Psychology is not the study of extraordinary mind activity like paranormal, extrasensory perception (ESP), astrology, nor phrenology. Psychology is theoretically constructed and uses a standard scientific process to discover evidences of that human’s behavior. Psychology also allows an individual to give special assistance to a specific group of children who could have a difficult time in schoolRead MorePsychology Is The Scientific Study Of The Mind And Behavior791 Words   |  4 Pagesinner most feelings. The field of psychology was created to understand human behavior to help make society a better place and people live much easier. Psychology is field with sub fields that differ but the underlining core values are the same. The path to becoming a psychologist is challenging and not easy but most people entering the field feel like it is their calling. I cannot pen point one exact language or a specif form of communication that makes the psychology field special because differentRead MorePsychology Is The Scientific Study Of The Mind And Behavior1589 Words   |  7 PagesWhat is Psychology? That is the first question before I took this class. I do not know what things I study from it. So is it useful for me and my life? Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. Psychology is a multifaceted discipline and includes many sub-fields of study such areas as human development, sports, health, clinical, social behavior and cognitive processes. (Simply Psychology Website). But today I will introduce 4 parts from the introduction to Psychology. That isRead MorePsychology Is A Discipline That Studies The Mind And Behavior1880 Words   |  8 PagesPsychology is a discipline that studies the mind and behavior. We hear about psychology through self-help book, self-help mentors, and talk shows. Many students enter this field of psychology with some knowledge. In the fall and winter of 1975 students in an introductory psychology class were given a test known as the â€Å"Test of misconception† students were asked to listen to each statement and answer them by answering true or false only, statements such as â€Å"To change people’s behaviors towards membersRead MorePsychology Is The Study Of People s Minds And Behaviors1710 Words   |  7 PagesPsychology is the study of people’s minds and behaviors. There are different types of psychology like health psychology, which study’s people’s health, and abnormal psychology, which study’s people’s minds, some characteristics of these psychology include the detentions of health, different types of disorders, like anxiety, and destiny, free will, fate, decisions, values, integrity, moral, and ethics. The dimensions of health and their characteristics, mental and social health, comparing and contrastingRead MoreP sychology Is The Scientific Study Of The Human Mind And Its Behaviors1625 Words   |  7 PagesBy definition, Psychology is â€Å"the scientific study of the human mind and its behaviours†. However, originally, Psychology did not begin as a science. The subject of Psychology began in 1879 when the first experimental laboratory was opened by Wilhelm Wundt. Since its establishment, Psychology has progressed into a world-renowned academic discipline with the formation of the first American experimental lab in 1883 and the first doctorate in 1886 which was presented to Joseph Jastrow, who became aRead MoreThe Philosophy Of Psychology Is Defined As The Scientific Study Of The Human Mind And Behavior1281 Words   |  6 PagesPsychology is defined as the scientific study of the human mind and behavior. It was established as a separate discipline during the late 1800s and can be taken back to the time of the ancient Greeks. From around 500BC to 322 BC, Greek philosophers suggested a theory of â€Å"psyche† that is where the word psychology comes from. This meaning the mind, soul and spirit. The Pythagoras, Hippocrates, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle were some of the most influential philosophers of their time. However, due to

Barack Obama s State Of The Union Speech - 1207 Words

Truthfully, there are a lot of significant Economic issues that were addressed in President Obama’s State of the Union Speech. Obama had many successes in the past year, including: the strongest production of jobs in fifteen years, drivers saving an expected hundred dollars because gasoline prices were extremely low, and the unemployment rate plummeting to a miniscule 5.6%. However, the wages of middle-class Americans remain unchanging. President Obama plans to fix this issue, using what he referred to as â€Å"Middle-Class Economics†. What is the idea of Middle-Class Economics? According to our forty-fourth president, Middle-Class Economics is defined as â€Å"the idea that this country does best when everyone gets their fair shot, everyone does†¦show more content†¦Throughout the twenty-first century, technology has been one of the major focusses of people world-wide. Technology has even helped the unemployment rate by creating new jobs that wouldn’t have been around twenty years ago. Overall, technology is a helpful tool that is used to advance our knowledge of the world we live in. However, technology can also be used for wrong-doing. One example of how technology can be used for wrong-doing comes in the form of identity theft. According to Merriam Webster, identity theft is â€Å"the illegal use of someone’s personal identifying information in order to get money or credit.† For example, in modern-day America, companies are putting the personal information of their customers in the cloud, a data server that is connected to the internet. As technology advances, it is getting harder for companies to protect your personal information, and easier for identity thieves to hack into the cloud and steal it. Thankfully, President Obama is determined to strengthen cyber-security, and so he has introduced a series of proposals designed to aid the fight against identity theft. Firstly, Obama wants companies to share informat ion with the government, in order to help the companies scan their servers for malicious software known as malware. Also, the president wants a system where customers will be alerted if their credit card is stolen, within a thirty

Advantages and Disadvantages of Single Parent Homes Free Essays

The purpose of this paper is to express the advantages and disadvantages of single parent homes. As compared to over forty to fifty years ago, single-parent families are common in today’s world. A single parent is a parent with one or more children, who is not living with any of the children’s other parents. We will write a custom essay sample on Advantages and Disadvantages of Single Parent Homes or any similar topic only for you Order Now The percentage of children who live with two parents has been declining among all racial and ethnic groups throughout the years. It has been found that children in single-parent homes generally fare worse than those in homes with two parents. In today’s single parent households there are many advantages and disadvantages. Even after you weigh the single parenting pros and cons you will see that the disadvantages of single parenting usually outweigh the advantages. The biggest concerns about single parenting are the children. Single parenting is not an easy thing to do. You must be both mother and father to a child or children. Youth from single mother homes, especially those living in poor communities, are at higher risk for adjustment difficulties (Shook et la, 2010). National estimates from the United States have found that the poverty rate of single parent homes was 43. 5% as compared to 21. % of cohabitating families and 7. 6% for married families. Single and cohabitating parents also had fewer assets, less stable employment and higher levels of material hardships. Among single parents and never married mothers, they may be even worse off than divorced mothers, because they had lower levels of human capital or family support and were less likely to receive child support (Gibson-Davis and Gassman-Pines, 2010). Research has shown that low income parents were more likely to use harsh discipline, engage in erratic and inconsistent parenting practices, and provide less cognitive stimulation. Economic well-being has also been directly linked to parental psychological health, because financial strain increases stress, anxiety and depression, further compromising parenting ( Gibson-Davis and Gassman-Pines, 2010). Growing up in a low socioeconomic household increases vulnerability to a wide array of risk factors that can have long-term developmental effects among children (Taylor et la, 2010). Stress and psychological vulnerabilities negatively influence parenting quality through behaviours such as ineffective monitoring of children, harsh or hostile parenting, and inconsistent parenting. Distressed parents are typically less affectionate and report feeling less capable in disciplinary interactions with their children. These types of poor parenting behaviours predict lower levels of children’s positive social behaviour and higher ratio of behaviour problems. Children from single mother families are at increased risk of maladjustment as a result of exposure to adverse environments resulting from poverty, parental internalizing symptoms and ineffective parenting (Taylor et la, 2010). Children from single parent families have very poor and behavioural outcomes. The transition to adolescence is a particularly vulnerable time as youth begin to exhibit lower social competence, declines in academic performance and increased levels of delinquency do to the lack of monitoring from their parent. It is proven that children living in single parent homes, in poverty ridden neighbourhoods are more likely to drop out of school, both so they could go and work to help with the household income or do to the lack of interest in academics. Pregnancy rates also increase for children between the ages of 15 to 17 years of age who live in single parent homes. There are also signs that children who have gone through a divorce may have problems with depression, and emotional stress. It has been found that adolescents from single parent families were found to be three times more likely to be depressed than those living in two parent households. Single-parent homes are also associated with criminal activity, such as murder, rape and other violent crimes. And they are also more likely to use drugs. Problems found in the single parent household may not be because of the parent who raised the child, but can be linked to other things that are also related to single parenting. The effects of coming from a low income family can include things like lower education levels, lower economic achievement and can result in leaving the child feeling isolated and lonely. It would appear that being a part of a single-parent household indicates a negative family environment. It should be said however that many single parent families find a balance and successfully thrive in today’s world. Single parents often worry that their children will somehow be damaged from living in a single parent family. While a single parent family may not be the ideal situation for raising children, many two parent families are also less than desirable. Kids can actually benefit from living in a single parent family. A home filled with conflict is the least desirable home environment for children. When the child’s prior two parent household included frequent fighting between the adults the child can benefit from living in one parent home provided that the conflict is stopped. Children observe adult relationships and usually apply what they have learned to their own relationships as adults. By residing with only one parent, the child may actually have a chance to observe healthier adult relationships. Children learn valuable lessons from dealing with hard times and having a difficult lifestyle from many of their peers. A single parent may actually have more time for the kids that a married parent would have. Since there is no longer a spouse around at mealtime, meals don’t have to be as substantial and can be structural around kid-friendly ingredients. The opportunity to spend time in two separate homes can be a good experience for your children. They will see different approaches to life and hopefully, take the best of both homes to use in establishing their own households as adults. Kids who live with one parent tend to develop independence faster than their peers. Since the parent will probably have a job and other many other duties, the kids may have to learn to do things for themselves such as preparing a single meal or participating in household chores. The kids also learn that they need to be ready to take care of themselves, since they, too, could end up on their own or in a single parent situation someday. Another benefit of a single parent household is the child may become extremely close with the parent they live with. Because in some circumstances children only have one parent so the child will want to form a strong bond with the only parent they have. Your kids will have more opportunities to develop responsibility. Although no one wants their kids to grow up before it is time, as part of a single parent family it will be easier for your kids to feel like partners in the family as opposed to â€Å"just the kids†. They will have more opportunities to contribute and grow into responsible adults. The single-parent and the children will learn resiliency. Resiliency, the ability to â€Å"bounce back† when negative things happen, is one of the most valuable skills one needs to survive in this world. Facing some of the difficulties of a single parent household, the parent and child will have numerous opportunities to practice resiliency. Face difficult situations with a positive attitude and hope, and learn to look outside the box when seeking solutions. They will develop a skill that can get them through the toughest of times together. Even though woman face greater financial problems, they tend to be more nurturing to their children by telling them they love them, hugging them, and showing affection towards them. In conclusion it is apparent that single parent households, whether headed by a mother or father, have more to deal with than two parent households. Single-parent households will continue to exist in society. It is also evident that children in two-parent households generally fare better than children who are raised by only one parent. With single parenthood being such a commonality in today’s world, it is important to take a close look at the research out there regarding this type of family unit and the effects it can have on children. With this knowledge, individuals are better able to address the many challenges accompanying single parenthood. Parenthood is challenging. Single-parenthood is excruciatingly challenging, I know because I am a single parent myself. How to cite Advantages and Disadvantages of Single Parent Homes, Essay examples

Top Management Estimates Samples for Students †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Top Management Estimates. Answer: Action to take as the project manager Having analyzed the information surrounding the project and is satisfied that the top management estimates were not realistic, I will boldly document the details to the top management and make them know my stand that the project is not likely to be a success. Continuing pursuing the idea will eventually consume the company resources and at the end fail to deliver the expected outcome which only means losses to the firm. The top management did not act correctly in generating the estimates. During the project evaluation stage, several experts and other employees of the firm had doubts regarding the probability of the project success. The management however allowed the optimism of high project profitability to cloud their judgment and t the end the overall excitement triggered the ruling other than facts. Project analysis should be based on thorough research regarding viability and profitability. This though never happened as excitement carried the participants over (Gray, 2018). The fact that the estimates were off target by up to $1250000 is a sign of lack of commitment in doing accurate cost evaluation rather the management preferred to rely on guesswork for a Vitol project which will cost the company a lot of resources both in terms of labor, technology and capital. The management should apply the use of Project Management Estimating software. This will assist do the cost evaluation, simulations and statistical analysis surrounding the project. This technique will help the management improve their accuracy while at the same time obtaining information regarding cost estimate alternatives (Project-Management-Skills.com, 2018). References Gray, E. L. (2018). Project management: The managerial process. McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings. Project-Management-Skills.com. (2018, February 18). Project Management Skills. Retrieved from Project Cost Estimating Tools Techniques: https://www.project-management-skills.com/project-cost-estimating.htm

Legal Aspects in Professional Psychology

Table of Contents Legal issues Importance of confidentiality Impact of legislation Role of competence Conclusion References Psychology is a developed field of study which can be applied in broad fields which include educational, clinical, sports, business, and health areas. Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Legal Aspects in Professional Psychology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Psychologists, just like other professionals, undergo intensive education and training before they are allowed to practice (Nancy, 2007). Professional psychologists are equipped with scientific foundations that prepare them to offer high quality services and use their practical skills effectively. The skills include, but not limited to, psychological examination, clinical supervision, consultation, as well as psychotherapy. Owing to the broadness of this field, there are a number of legal aspects which should be considered in the pra ctice of professional psychology. The code of ethics clearly provide for the general principles expected in the practice of virtually all professional fields such as medicine, law, and dentistry. The essay elaborates the legal issues related to knowledgeable approval and refusal of medical care as well as evaluating the legal issues associated evaluation and diagnosis in the field of professional psychology. It also offers the explanation of the need to enhance confidentiality in the therapeutic relationship between the patient and the psychologist. Moreover, the essay offers an evaluation of the impact of government legislation and the role of competence in professional psychology. Legal issues The legal aspects in the field of professional psychology apply to all instances where psychological ethics are to be exercised. Professional psychologists are expected to understand the legal issues and concerns that may be raised especially by their clients. Apart from the practical conc erns, the legal aspects of psychology cover broad areas such as understanding the role of government laws and the regulations associated with human behavior as well as the various mental processes (Nancy, 2007). The practice of professional psychology should not violate any of the legal provisions stipulated in the professional code of conduct and ethics. Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The codes of ethics are generally uniform in all the states although licensing may be done by individual states. The handling of clients by psychologists is one of the most sensitive areas which should abide by the legal requirements. Professional psychologists are expected to ensure that they get informed consent from their clients. This implies that the client has to agree with terms and conditions of medical treatment or any assessment/testing (Nancy, 2007). Such consent must be well informed, c ompetent and voluntary in nature. In case the client is not in a position to give consent, then a recognized health attorney or next of kin may be allowed to stand in for the patient. The doctor must inform the client of the possible risks as well as benefits associated with the intended treatment process (Berger, 2002). Additionally, the client should be given the alternative ways of treatment in order to make appropriate personal choices. Another legal doctrine under informed consent is self-determination. It refers to the right of an adult client who is of sound mind to decide what can be done on their body in the course of treatment (Nancy, 2007). The psychologist is expected to communicate sufficient information to the client in order to facilitate the consent process. At the end of the consent process, the client should sign appropriate documents before the commencement of any medical care. The right to informed refusal is another legal requirement in the practice of profess ional psychology. This provision empowers the client to refuse any given medical care regardless of how crucially important it is meant to save his or her life (Berger, 2002). For example, a patient suffering from kidney failure may decline a transplant despite knowing that refusal may result in death. Furthermore, a client suffering from serious heart attack may opt to depart the hospital even though they are likely to die (Nancy, 2007). A client may refuse treatment due to several reasons such as depression, lack of trust, fear, and misunderstanding. A psychologist may make further attempts to convince the client if he or she thinks the decision to refuse treatment is incompetent. Importance of confidentiality The legal provisions are also geared towards ensuring confidentiality between clients and their psychologists. The professional code of conduct and ethics protects clients from any form of abuse especially emotional and or physical. Advertising We will write a custom e ssay sample on Legal Aspects in Professional Psychology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Recommended practices by professional psychologists are guaranteed. They include the maintenance of medical files, and appropriate ways for terminating a given therapy process. A psychologist is not expected to share any of the client’s crucial medical information in public (Berger, 2002). This goes a long way in enhancing the trust between the client and the doctor. If the patient develops confidence towards the therapist, then the treatment process is bound to be successful. In a situation where confidentiality is breached, the client may initiate legal action against the therapy provider (Berger, 2002). In general, confidentiality in the practice of professional psychology ensures that clients receive professional as well as humane handling that protects them from any form of abuse. Impact of legislation The government in the United St ates plays a central role when it comes to the practice of professional psychology. Some legislations passed from time to time by the federal government influence this filed directly (Nancy, 2007). Decisions which affect the financing and practice in the healthcare profession, particularly psychological services are made regularly. The state of healthcare policy in the United States has a lot of impacts on the training of psychologists. All professional psychologists in America are regulated by the American Psychological Association (APA) (Berger, 2002). The legislations provide the required academic achievements in order to be recognized as a professional psychologist. Clinical and counseling psychologists are the most common and are responsible for providing psychotherapeutic services and other psychological examinations. Government legislations, however, may vary from state to state but they are all designed to safeguard the clients and the credibility of the profession (Berge r, 2002). The legislations in some states have allowed psychologists with appropriate additional qualifications to provide psychiatric medicine. Efforts by other states to pass the same legislation have been unsuccessful. Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More APA has been very influential in pushing for appropriate legislations by the government. Emerging issues in the field of professional psychology have resulted in key legislations that are aimed at enhancing the quality of services offered to the clients as well as improving the welfare of the psychologists (Berger, 2002). Role of competence All professional psychologists are legally expected to provide excellent services for their respective clients. Professional psychologists should therefore demonstrate outstanding competence in their responsibilities. Competence can be defined as the ability to effectively perform specific tasks within a given field. Psychologists are trained to perform specialized tasks using the acquired skills (Berger, 2002). Psychologists are ethically expected to provide services that are within their areas of competence. They should take clients who have problems which they can competently offer solutions. Competence, therefore, ensures that psychologists utilize their acquired knowledge, skills, and appropriate behavior in handling their clients. Conclusion The essay has discussed the various concerns related to knowledgeable approval and the right to denial of treatment and concerns touching on evaluation and determination in the field of professional psychological. It has also given the details of upholding confidentiality in the therapeutic relationships between the client and the doctor. Furthermore, the essay has offered an evaluation of the impact of government legislations as well as the role of competence in professional psychology. The various legal aspects in professional psychology, therefore, play a major role in regulating the general provision of services by psychologists. References Berger, L. S. (2002). Understanding professional psychology: government regulation and competence. Trafford Plc. Nancy, M. (2007). Professional psychology: a psychologist’s comprehensive guide (2nd ed.). McGraw Hill Plc. This essay on Legal Aspects in Professional Psychology was written and submitted by user Savannah Combs to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Make Ammonium Nitrate from Household Chemicals

Make Ammonium Nitrate from Household Chemicals Fireworks season is coming up, so before I get into the new fireworks projects, I wanted to cover the synthesis of a common chemical used for pyrotechnics: ammonium nitrate. Another fun project to try with ammonium nitrate is to make an endothermic reaction. You can buy ammonium nitrate as a pure chemical or you can collect it from instant cold packs or some fertilizers. You can make ammonium nitrate by reacting nitric acid with ammonia, but if you dont have access to nitric acid (or dont want to mess with it), you can make ammonium nitrate from readily available home chemicals. Gather Materials You will need: 138 g sodium bisulfate (found with pool chemicals, used to lower pH)1 mole equivalent of a nitrate salt... any of the following85 g sodium nitrate (common food preservative)101 g potassium nitrate (which you can buy or make yourself)118 g calcium nitrate (tetrahydrate)ammonia (common household cleaner)methanol (optional, which may be found as HEET fuel treatment) Ingredients Dissolve the sodium bisulfate in the mininum amount of water (about 300 ml).Dissolve your nitrate salt in the minimum amount of water (amount depends on the salt).Mix the two solutions.Next you want to neutralize the solution, which is quite acidic. Stir in ammonia until the pH of the mixture is 7 or higher. Use a pH meter (or pH paper). Reacting ammonia, sodium bisulfate, and nitrates will give you sodium sulfate and ammonium nitrate.Sodium sulfate and ammonium nitrate have different solubilities in water, so boil the solution to get the sodium sulfate to crystallize. Remove the liquid from heat when crystals of sodium sulfate form in the bottom of the pan.Chill the solution in the freezer to get as much of the sodium sulfate as possible to drop out of the solution.Run the solution through a filter (coffee filter or paper towels) to separate the solid sodium sulfate from the ammonium nitrate solution.Allow the ammonium nitrate solution to evaporate, which will give you ammonium nitr ate, with some sodium sulfate impurity. This is good enough for most chemistry projects. If you want to further purify the ammonium nitrate, dissolve it in about 500 ml of methanol. The ammonium nitrate is soluble in methanol, while the sodium sulfate is not.Run the solution through a filter, which will give you sodium sulfate on the filter and a solution of ammonium nitrate.Allow the methanol to evaporate from the solution to obtain crystalline ammonium nitrate. Safety Information The chemicals used in this project are smelly and corrosive, so this project should be performed under a fume hood or outdoors. As always, wear gloves, eye protection, and appropriate clothing. Some of the reagents and the final product are flammable or are oxidizers, so keep the chemicals away from open flames.

Reflective journal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Reflective journal - Essay Example Students in this model are required to make sure that the company expands its operations as well as increase its revenue output. Before the process started, the teacher divided the class into different groups which were to compete with each other in business modeling. It was during these groups that I learnt effective decision making processes among other skills as discussed in this paper. How I performed as a member of my team As a member of my team, I performed well and was fully involved in the decision making process. Although it was I was not mandated to perform all the tasks involved in the process, I was engaged in other activities such as conducting research on different topics and issues. The expertise and knowledge of our team leader helped us avoid role conflict among the different team members. Since everybody has different capabilities and abilities, he assigned roles according to our natural talents and interests. He knew the strengths and weaknesses of every member of our team. This skill helped him in allocation of tasks and roles that different people would perform. Not everybody has equal capabilities as we are all naturally different. Therefore, those who were slow were offered support. This helped us in making swift and effective decisions that did not negatively affect our performance. I conducted thorough research for the benefit of the team and as a way of showing my active participation. To be successful, all members of a team should handle their duties cautiously and with seriousness. As such, they should show concern and be fully involved in all the teams’ activities. Different people have different performance levels. While working as a team, it is imperative to understand that all people have different capabilities and have different performance abilities. What I learnt from working in the team Teams are an essential tool for learning from peers as they offer engaged students with different knowledge and skills. Students get a chance to learn from other fellow students. Students also have the opportunity to practice different skills such as communication skills and public relations skills. For a team to be successful there must be the existence of good communication skills and members (Hayes & Hayes 2002, p., 112). Again, they should be able to work together and understand the need for them to be involved in the group. In the whole modeling process, I learnt about teamwork and its importance to people working for a single course and aiming at a common goal. Our goal was emerging the best team after the whole process. We planned to grow the share capital of our company and grow our market share. I learnt that in a team, arriving at a decision took a longer time than when working individually. In a team, there are various options available for the team to exploit in reaching a particular agreement (Adair 2010,  13). Personally, I developed good decision making skills that I find useful all the time. Area s I can improve on in my teamwork For a team to carry out its mandate successfully, it requires a number of factors to work in its favor. First, the team members must agree to pursue a common goal and move towards a similar direction. Our team was able to settle on our strategy and decide on the ways to use so that we could achieve our goal (Bell & Smith 2011,

Holistic Care in Relation to Adult Nursing and Child Nursing Essay

Holistic Care in Relation to Adult Nursing and Child Nursing - Essay Example This study will focus on discussing the significance of holistic care in relation to adult nursing and child nursing. As part of discussing the significance of holistic care in adult and child nursing, some real-life clinical examples will be provided when practicing spirituality in holistic care for adult and child patients. Eventually, several reasons will be provided as to why nurses should exert an effort to incorporate spirituality when giving holistic care to the patients. Significance of Holistic Care in Relation to Adult Nursing and Child Nursing Holistic care is all about being able to deliver caring service that will uplift not only the physical health of the patients but also their mental, social, psychological, emotional, and spiritual well-being (Broker and Nicol, 2003, p. 4). There are quite a lot of similarities and differences with regards to the provision of holistic care to adult and child patients. Similar to child nursing, the adult nursing aims to promote a healt hy lifestyle and prevent diseases. Before planning, delivering, and evaluating the quality of healthcare services given to each patient, holistic care in adult nursing and child nursing aims to identify the specific healthcare needs of the patients (Broker and Nicol, 2003, p. 4). ... that the family members are experiencing when taking care of an adult patient who has insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, the family members are more stressed out when caring for children who are suffering from chronic disease (Hobson and Noyes, 2011). Since the parents of the child has other important obligation to do during day time, it is expected that the child’s parents will be experiencing excessive stress when taking care of a sick child. Therefore, healthcare professional should incorporate the practice of spirituality when providing holistic care to a child patient. Healthcare professionals should consider all possible interventions that can effectively improve such resilience. For instance, when dealing with young patients, healthcare professionals should develop a balanced coping strategy that will allow the parents of a sick child to maintain a good physical and mental health and meet the medical and emotional needs of the child (Major, 2003). By doing so, the nur ses will be able to make the family members easily cope with the child’s chronic illness. Examining how the patient’s family function will also make it easier on the part of the nurse(s) to gain better idea on how they can effectively manage or lessen the physical and emotional stress that the parents and the child’s siblings may be experiencing in times of dealing with the patient’s chronic disease. Upon developing a list of effective nursing intervention, healthcare professionals could more or less be able to lessen and minimize the chances wherein the family members would experience negative emotions such as anger and depression. Another good way of providing spirituality in holistic care is for the healthcare professionals to be able to identify the risk factors that may trigger

Definition Of Voting System Information Technology Essay

Definition Of Voting System Information Technology Essay Using an electronic voting system has become more and more popular worldwide and is replacing traditional paper voting methods. However, with wider adoption it has been increasingly criticized for not being secure enough and has had some controversy over the fact that the voters need to put their trust in a system they have no idea how works and is often closed black box device. However, although users demand a transparent and secure voting system, they also demand fast and reliable results, and that is something that only an electronic voting system can provide. In the last decade many organizations and governments have started electronic voting. Some companies have also specialized in electronic voting systems, and some of them have had a lot of criticism19 2 Definition of voting system a voting system is not just the equipment necessary to cast a vote. the voting system standards (VSS) has two definitions, addressing the physical and functional components of a voting system. the physical aspect defines a voting system as comprising all the hardware and software, procedures, manuals, and specifications . http://homepages.nyu.edu/~tsc223/ElectronicVoting.pdf Voting system means, a method of casting and processing votes that functions wholly or partly by use of electromechanical, or electronic apparatus or by use of paper ballots and includes, but is not limited to, the procedures for casting and processing votes and the programs, operating manuals, tabulating cards, printouts and other software necessary for the systems operation. A voting system consists of a configuration of specific hardware and software components, procedures and expendable supplies; configured into a system which allows votes to be cast and tabulated. No single component of a voting system, such as a precinct tabulation device, meets the definition of a voting system. Sufficient components must be assembled to create a configuration, which will allow the system as a whole to meet all the requirements described for a voting system in this publication. http://election.dos.state.fl.us/voting-systems/pdf/dsde101Form.pdf Properties of voting systems Researchers in the electronic voting field have already reached a consensus pack of four core properties that an electronic voting system should have (Cranor and Cytron 1997): Accuracy: (1) it is not possible for a vote to be altered, (2) it is not possible for a validated vote to be eliminated from the final tally, and (3) it is not possible for an invalid vote to be counted in the final tally. Democracy: (1) it permits only eligible voters to vote and, (2) it ensures that eligible voters vote only once. Privacy: (1) neither authorities nor anyone else can link any ballot to the voter who cast it and (2) no voter can prove that he voted in a particular way. Verifiability: anyone can independently verify that all votes have been counted correctly. Accuracy, democracy and verifiability are, in most cases of todays electoral systems, assured by the presence of representatives of opposite parties. The privacy property is currently assured by the existence of private voting booths, allowing voters to cast their votes in secrecy. 50 Voting system life cycle Many discussions of voting system security vulnerability fail to consider the entire voting system. In addition to the hardware and software that make up the voting equipment, the system includes election workers, voters, and is deployed in a variety of physical environments. Election workers are often volunteers whose skill with technology can vary widely. Similarly, voting technology that assumes a level of technological literacy on the part of the individual voter will potentially be susceptible to error. A security assessment of election equipment that only considers hardware and software without examining its use in real contexts may conclude that the equipment is satisfactory. Considering the larger system including election workers and voters will require analysis of procedures with a focus on fair voting criteria anonymity, confidentiality, integrity, and audit ability. http://www.ejeg.com/volume-2/volume2-issue3/v2-i3-art4-lauer.pdf Voting Places Voting at polling places [8] : The department can provide the reliable, no virus, and easy-handled voting machine in the polling places. The voters can be authenticated by the traditional protocol and the technological authentication of voters might not be necessary. It provides the highest security compared to other electronic voting place. Voting at home with voters computer [8]: Voters can cast their votes by using their own computers at home. It is hard to prevent the third partys advertisement appearing on the screen while voting. It is much more difficult to secure the voters computer from the attacks of hackers and virus. Voting at anyplace with mobile devices [8]: The voters can use their devices to get access to internet in any place and cast a vote through the electronic voting system. Not only can the laptop be used to vote, the PDA, cell phone, and any other mobile devices might also be used to vote in the future. But there are many harsh problems need to overcome. The security is the most serious problem. It is vital to make sure that the computer and network in which the voters get access is not monitored, intercepted, or tampered by any attackers. http://homepages.nyu.edu/~tsc223/ElectronicVoting.pdf Voting in Egypt Voting in Egypt is like any other country; most of countries still using the conventional voting technique in government election, but now Egyptian government think to electronic voting system rather that conventional voting to avoid the problems they faced on it. There is a lot of problem in conventional voting in Egypt: 1- There is no good relationship between the government and popular, popular cant trust the government and depend on it, voter here is like a blind person that must rely on the other person to vote for him. 2- Sometimes, government coerced and carries on the voters to vote for a particular candidate, and eliminate them from voting freely. 3- Some candidates trying to win by buy the votes from the voters. 4- Government can cheat by substitute the original ballot by derivative ones. So there must be another way to solve these problems or reduce it as possible, and give the voters the confidence to believe of the system, form this point we think to use a new technology to improve the election by building a new system that is convenience for environment of our country Egypt. A novel in e voting in Egypt http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=vq=cache:0tkjSklsJf0J:citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.96.19%26rep%3Drep1%26type%3Dpdf+electronic+voting+system+diagramhl=engl=ukpid=blsrcid=ADGEESg4A60cHXQU91yKcqMtBvIK_QDFE30y-uM9olPWwuYpBHDS3k8QAmQIPJ_Nrm_aeGkQIaxMoxq3mTREZsaEZvCCdW3GsOQGS61G15RFdCai5s2KbqO728FXRmPkFgmGU_UwQWHbsig=AHIEtbSKAxn_DBTwcaIIcGPif-nYac-epA How voting works In the United States, voting is a local issue. The Federal government certainly has a lot of say about voting through the Federal Election Commission, but in the end, its state and local officials who administer elections. In most states, the secretary of states office runs an elections office that sets rules and administers statewide elections. The actual elections themselves are usually the purview of the county clerk. Moreover, counties and municipalities bear the majority of the cost of managing elections. In 2000, the total county election expenditures were estimated at over $1 billion, or about $10 per voter. Voting is more complicated than simply tallying votes. In fact, most of the work in an election occurs long before the voter ever steps into the booth. Voter registration requires large databases of voters, their addresses and geographic calculation of precinct and district information. Ballot preparation is a long process that is complicated by myriad rules and regulations. The election itself must be administered, usually with the help of a large, volunteer workforce that gets to practice about once per year. All of these activities, in addition to vote tallying, are part of a voting system. http://www.extremedemocracy.com/chapters/Chapter%2011-Windley.pdf Voting systems design criteria Authentication: Only authorized voters should be able to vote. Uniqueness: No voter should be able to vote more than once. Accuracy: Voting systems should record the votes correctly. Integrity: Votes should not be able to be modified without detection. Verifiability: Should be possible to verify that votes are correctly counted for in the final tally. Audit ability: There should be reliable and demonstrably authentic election records. Reliability: Systems should work robustly, even in the face of numerous failures. Secrecy: No one should be able to determine how any individual voted. Non- coercibility: Voters should not be able to prove how they voted. Flexibility: Equipment should allow for a variety of ballot question formats. Convenience: Voters should be able to cast votes with minimal equipment and skills. Certifiability: Systems should be testable against essential criteria. Transparency: Voters should be able to possess a general understanding of the whole process. Cost-effectiveness: Systems should be affordable and efficient. http://www.terena.org/activities/tf-csirt/meeting7/gritzalis-electronic-voting.pdf 3 Definition of e-voting system An electronic voting (e-voting) system is a voting system in which the election data is recorded, stored and processed primarily as digital information. Electronic voting is a means of having a paperless voting system. Electronic voting is a term used to describe any of several means of determining peoples collective intent electronically. Electronic voting includes voting by kiosk, internet, telephone, punch card, and optical scan ballot (a.k.a. mark-sense). Thefreedictionary.com 17 An electronic voting system (on-line voting, internet voting) is an election system which uses electronic ballot that would allow voters to transmit their secure and secret voted ballot to election officials over the internet [2]. With the prosperity of internet over the years, inventers start to make the use of electronic voting in order to make the voting process more convenient and raise the participation of the civic. From now on, engineers have repeatedly created new technology to improve the feasibility of electronic voting system. http://www.terena.org/activities/tf-csirt/meeting7/gritzalis-electronic-voting.pdf electronic voting refers to use of computer or computerized voting equipment to cast ballots in an election. this term, sometimes, is used more specifically to refer to voting that take place over the internet. electronic system can be used to register voters, tally ballots, and record votes. http://profsite.um.ac.ir/~kahani/doc/ejisdc05.pdf 3.1 Type of e voting system E-Voting is a type of voting that includes the use of a computer rather than the traditional use of ballot at polling centres or by postal mail. It encompasses various types of voting: kiosks, the Internet, telephones, punch cards, and marksense or optical scan ballots. http://jatit.org/volumes/research- papers/Vol2No1/4vol2no1.pdf there is two types of e-voting: polling place voting and Internet voting. Polling place voting. In a polling place, both the voting clients (voting machines) and the physical environment are supervised by authorized entities. Depending on the type of polling place (precinct or kiosk [6]), validation may be either physical (e.g. by election officials) or electronic (with some kind of digital identification). Casting and tallying are electronic: the voting clients may be Direct Recording Electronic. Internet voting. The vote is cast over the Internet and the voting client is unsupervised during voting (the voting client may be at home, at work, in a library, etc). Registration may be either physical (at the elections office) or electronic (with some form of digital identification). Validation, casting and tallying are electronic. I-voting requires a much greater level of security than e-commerce. While checking the eligibility of voters, and that no voter casts more than one vote, is no more difficult than meeting the security requirements of an e-commerce application, ensuring this and meeting other requirements such as privacy, a universally verifiable audit trail and uncoercibility, has been difficult to achieve in a practical and affordable way. http://euro.ecom.cmu.edu/program/courses/tcr17-803/Burmeister.pdf Advantage The advocate of electronic voting claims that the convenience, mobility, tally speed, less cost, and flexibility are the main advantages. Following are the descriptions of the advantages. Convenience: With the well-designed software and system, the voters can simply use his voting equipment with the minimal time and skill to finish the voting process [2]. Mobility: Voters can cast their votes at a specific polling place, home, or any place in which they can get access to the internet. People can even use the mobile device such as cell phone or PDA to vote. There is no restriction on the location [2]. Tally Speed: [3] Once the voting time is over, the computer can immediately calculate the result of the election. It is much faster than the traditional ballot counting method operated by people. Less Cost: [3] Compared to paper ballot voting, electronic voting saves money from reducing the personnel expense, expense for location management and administration fee, etc. In the beginning, the investment expense of building up the electronic voting system would be very high. But after the system is built up, the total expense would be reduced to be much lower than paper ballot voting. Flexibility: Electronic voting system can be designed to support a variety of ballot question formats [2]. It can be used to collect public opinions or election. Voter participation: With convenience and mobility of the system, it would motivate people who are not interested in voting or unable to vote originally. It would increase the participation of voters. http://homepages.nyu.edu/~tsc223/ElectronicVoting.pdf 2.5 Disadvantage Despite the particular advantages to electronic voting system, critics of electronic voting argue about the security issue and the unequal access chance to the internet are the main drawbacks to the system. Inequality problem: It is apparent that the people with low salary might not be able to afford the equipment for electronic voting. And some people who are not able to use the computer facility might lose their privilege in voting. Vulnerable to Security: The security issue is the main drawback of the electronic voting system. So far, there are still many kinds of attacks which are hard to prevent completely. The attacks might be happened from the webpage, network, to the extent of servers database. Denial of Service attack: A denial of service is characterized by that an attacker prevents legitimate users from using resources. An attacker may attempt to flood a network and thus reduce a legitimate users bandwidth, prevent access to a service, or disrupt service to a specific system or a user [4]. Now it is very hard to completely avoid this kind of attack. Nevertheless, people can adopt some methods such as Filtering Routers, Disabling IP Broadcast, Disabling Unused Services, and Performing intrusion Detection [4] to make the network more secure. Virus: Virus such as Trojan horse would do great damage to the system. The server can be easily protected from the attack of virus by using some specific kinds of operating system. But the client such as personal computers might not secure enough and are easily infected with virus. These viruses might attack computer from http://www.vvk.ee/public/dok/Yldkirjeldus-eng.pdf E-voting system concept The e-voting concept is similar to the envelope method used during advance polls today to allow voting outside of polling place of voters residence: * the voter identifies himself/herself to polling commission, * the voter fills the ballot and puts it in an inner envelope, * that envelope is put into another envelope on which the voters data is then written, * the envelope is transported to the voters polling station, the voters eligibility is verified, and if the voter is eligible, the outer envelope is opened and the anonymous inner envelope is put into the ballot box. The e-voting follows the same scheme. E-voter creates during the voter procedures an inner envelope (which is essentially an encrypted vote) and an outer envelope (which is essentially a digital signature). The following considerations speak in favour of the envelope method: * simplicity and understand ability of the scheme, possibility to draw a parallel with traditional elections; * simplicity of system architecture the number of components and parties is minimal; * full use of digital signature. http://www.vvk.ee/public/dok/Yldkirjeldus-eng.pdf 2. Votes cannot be known before the official ballot reading; 3. Only registered voters will be able to vote; 4. Each voter will have one and only one vote; 5. Vote secrecy is guaranteed; it never will be possible to link a voter to his/her vote; 6. The voting website will resist any denial of service attack 7. The voter will be protected against identity theft; 8. The number of cast votes will be equal to the number of received ballots; 9. It will be possible to prove that a given citizen has voted; 10. The system will not accept votes outside the ballot opening period; 11. The system will be audible. Character of e-voting system discusses the following characteristics of a good electronic voting system: accuracy, democracy, privacy, verifiability, convenience, flexibility, and mobility. Each account includes the characteristic of accuracy, but the authors define accuracy in different ways. For example, Schneier defines accuracy as direct mapping from intent to counted vote. Standard defines accuracy as the extent to which a given measurement agrees with an accepted standard for that measurement and includes significant discussion of acceptable error rates in the body of the document. For Cranor, A system is accurate if (1) it is not possible for a vote to be altered, (2) it is not possible for a validated vote to be eliminated from the final tally, and (3) it is not possible for an invalid vote to be counted in the final tally. Combining these definitions produces: An accurate voting system counts all valid votes with minimal processing error such that the intent of eligible voters is reflected in the final tally. Each account also discusses the requirement that voters be able to cast their vote in secret, without a link between the voter and the cast ballot. This characteristic is referred to as anonymity, confidentiality, or privacy. Both characteristics, accuracy and privacy, are essential in an ideal voting system. Yet, it is a non-trivial matter to achieve both simultaneously. For example, how do we insure that the intent of eligible voters is reflected in the final tally, without a back-channel to the voter after the vote has been counted but, wouldnt a back-channel to the voter compromise privacy. Each account also discusses the requirement that voters be able to cast their vote in secret, without a link. http://brahms.emu.edu.tr/rza/An%20Introduction%20to%20Electronic%20Voting.pdf characteristics, such as security, reliability, ease of use, and cost effectiveness http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d07576t.pdf Basic Principles of E-voting The main principle of e-voting is that it must be as similar to regular voting as possible, compliant with election legislation and principles and be at least as secure as regular voting. Therefore e-voting must be uniform and secret, only eligible persons must be allowed to (e-)vote, every voter should be able to cast only one vote, a voter must not be able to prove in favour of whom he/she voted. In addition to this the collecting of votes must be secure, reliable and accountable. According to Estonian election legislation e-voting takes place from 6th to 4th day before Election Day and the following requirements are laid out: (1) On advance polling days, voters may vote electronically on the web page of the National Electoral Committee. A voter shall vote himself or herself. (2) A voter shall identify himself or herself using the certificate entered on his or her identity card which enables digital identification. (3) After identification of the voter, the consolidated list of candidates in the electoral district of the residence of the voter shall be displayed to the voter on the web page. (4) The voter shall indicate on the web page the candidate in the electoral district of his or her residence for whom he or she wishes to vote and shall confirm the vote by signing it digitally using the certificate entered on his or her identity card which enables digital signing. (5) A notice that the vote has been taken into account shall be displayed to the voter on the web page. (6) Voter may change his or her electronic vote during the advance voting period from 6th to 4th day before Election Day: 1) by voting electronically; 2) by voting in polling station. http://www.vvk.ee/public/dok/Yldkirjeldus-eng.pdf E-Voting Procedures In this section we will describe in greater detail the behaviour of the components present in the general architecture of the system during different stages of e-voting. 6.1. Key Management The key management procedures and the security scheme used are one of the most critical points of the system on which the fulfilment of the main requirements of the system (privacy and secrecy of voting) depends. What follows is not a final description of the measures and procedures, but we will outline the main concept, main risks and possible solutions. The main tool to guarantee the secrecy of voting in the system is asymmetric cryptography. A system key pair is generated, the public component of which is integrated into client software and is used to encrypt the vote. The private component of the key pair is used in the Vote Counting Application to decrypt the vote. It is of utmost importance that the use of private key is possible only for counting the votes in the VCA (at 19.00 on election day and, if necessary, during recount). When the period for filing complaints has expired, the private key will be destroyed The privacy and secrecy of an e-voter can be compromised by a simultaneous occurrence of two security hazards: a party appears in the system (or outside the system) who has access to both the private key of the system as well as the digitally signed votes. Even though this data is separated in the system, the risk remains. A one and only private key is probably a lot easier to protect than the digitally signed e-votes the latter pass through several system components (Voter, VFS, VSS) and data transfer channels, consequently, the danger of leaked e-votes is higher. Thus fo r ensuring the security the main focus should be on key management. The private key is subject to two dangers: * Compromise or becoming publicly available. The occurrence of this would enable the parties in possession of digitally signed e-votes to determine who cast a vote in favour of whom, thus compromising the privacy of the voter. * Corruption. The private key carrier may be destroyed, lost or be corrupted because of a technical error. When this occurs it becomes impossible to decrypt the e-votes and all the electronically cast e-votes are lost. This is a critical danger and therefore two key pairs should be used simultaneously in the system. The key pair is generated in a Hardware Security Module (HSM) in such a way that the private component never leaves the module. The generation of the key pair and use of private key is maintained by key managers, there should be several of them. A scheme N out of M is recommended, for National Electoral Committee four members out of seven should be present in order to perform security critical operations. Key managers have physical (for example a keycard) as well as knowledge-based (PIN-code) authentication devices for communicating with the HSM. The procedures of key management, meaning the generation of the key pair and PINs, delivery of the public component to the vendor of client application, preservation of the private component, its backup and delivery to the VCA must be subject to audit supervision and should be described in a separate document. http://www.vvk.ee/public/dok/Yldkirjeldus-eng.pdf Paper voting system Paper-based voting: The voter gets a blank ballot and use a pen or a marker to indicate he want to vote for which candidate. Hand-counted ballots is a time and labour consuming process, but it is easy to manufacture paper ballots and the ballots can be retained for verifying, this type is still the most common way to vote http://crypto.nknu.edu.tw/publications/200805ICIM_eVoting.pdf In paper voting, the conformation to these principles is achieved via voter identification, supervised voting and distributed counting procedures. People are admitted to the polling station only once, and they only get one opportunity to cast their vote. It is also hard to add invalid ballots to or remove valid ballots from the ballot box unseen. The paper system uses separate counting sessions in the different districts, and allows any citizen to attend the counting process, and thereby verify the result. Moreover, since voting is done under supervision of the election officials, you will be guaranteed a private voting environment. This is a warrant for the secrecy of your vote. Via these aspects, paper voting has acquired a large deal of trust in the experience of citizens. Still, the ease with which this system has been replaced in the Netherlands suggest that there are other factors involved as well. One may argue that the electronic voting machines currently in use have been accepted based on passivity rather than trust. When these machines were introduced in the Netherlands, there has not been much debate about the conformation to the aforementioned principles. Instead, their introduction has been more or less tacitly accepted in spite of decreased transparency which is typical of passivity. http://www.win.tue.nl/ipa/archive/falldays2005/Paper_Pieters.pdf Paper voting has earned a large amount of trust in the experience of citizens, partly due to the well organised social context. Progress in technology should not lead to problems with democratic progress in society, which may easily become the result of distrust in the election system. If voting technology mediates the relation between people and democracy in such a way that the experience of trust and stability is reduced, for whatever reason, the actions that are invited are political passivity on the one hand, and protest and obstruction on the other. http://www.win.tue.nl/ipa/archive/falldays2005/Paper_Pieters.pdf Voting by Paper Ballot In colonial America, early voters substituted beans, kernels of corn, seashells, or rocks for the multi-colored balls used in Greece, as well as using a show of hands and voice to conduct elections (Rusk 313). In 1629, the first vote credited with using paper ballots took place in a Salem, Massachusetts church and by the Civil War only Kentucky and Virginia were still voting by voice.6 In 1800, the Northwest Territory enacted a law stating that elections should be held by ballot. http://josephhall.org/arnold_ca_vs_hist.pdf Paper-based E-voting system In a paper based e-voting system, a touch screen is used in voting. After the voter has finished casting his votes, the unit prints out a hardcopy of the ballot which the voter has to pass to the election officer in charge so that it can be counted in a centralized location. The ballots will then be counted through optical-scan voting systems. This system has the advantage of a paper trail as every persons votes are recorded on a piece of paper. However, holes that are not properly aligned in a punch card or stray marks on an optical-scan card may lead to a vote not being counted by the machine. Moreover, physical ballots can still be lost during or after transit to the counting stations. http://www.topbits.com/e-voting.html Direct recording electronic systems A DRE (Direct Recording Electronic) voting system consists of a computer with a touch-screen monitor, a permanent storage medium such as a write-once memory card, software, and, in some systems, a ballot printer. The computer is much like a home computer. A touch-screen monitor allows the user to touch a marked spot on the monitor surface with his finger, thus entering data as if the screen were a keyboard; you have seen one if you have ever used an Automatic Teller Machine. The software consists of two parts: 1) An Operating System that supports the voting software and directly controls the monitor, the permanent storage, and any other device that forms part of the computer system. 2) The voting system itself, which runs as an application on the Operating System. It manages the user interface, guards against certain user errors e.g., it refuses to accept a vote if the user votes for more candidates than there are offices to be filled and records the vote of each user on the users command. The voting system also counts the votes and records the counts, or else cooperates with a central computer to produce these results. The ballot printer, if there is one, produces a document that may look like a ballot; it shows the choices made by the user. After the user has examined it, he may direct the system to record his vote or he may ask for another chance to vote. When the voter has made his choice, the system disposes of this document in one of a number of ways, which will be described later. Most of the DRE systems installed in the United States today do not have these printers. Direct Recording Electronic Voting Systems This is essentially voting through a comput

Growth of Telecommunications Systems

Books Wright, Michael and Mukul Patel. 2000. Scientific American – How Things Work Today. London: Marshall Publishing Ltd. B. 1 The world is currently in the middle of a communications revolution as dramatic as the Industrial Revolution that created our modern society two centuries ago. The growth of telecommunications systems, the arrival of the Internet, and the proliferation of computers in every aspect of our lives are transforming both industrial and knowledge-based economies round the world. Higher disposable incomes and increased leisure time are also fuelling demand for luxury electronic goods and new forms of entertainment.Since the British inventor Alexander Graham Bell patented the telephone in 1877, telephony has become the most important form of distance communication. The telephone network is now truly global, with submarine cables and communications satellites linking every continent. This globe-spanning network handles phone calls, fax transmissions, and intern et traffic. The long-distance â€Å"backbones† of the telephone network are high capacity optical-fiber cables. Lower-capacity copper cables connect individual phones to the network. The analog signal from an ordinary phone is sampled 4,000 times per second and converted into an 8-bit ddigital signal.Several conversations can then be transmitted simultaneously down the same cable, using a technique known as multiplexing, which increases the capacity of the network. Routing calls through the telephone network is done automatically be telephone exchanges. In near future, the telephone network may also carry video and music channels, interactive televisions, videophone calls. Analog signal – Analog electric signals from ordinary phones are carried by copper cable to the local exchange. Base station – The base station receiving the sthrongest signal from a cell phone routes the call to the cell phone exchange.Cell – The cell phone network is divided into hexa gonal cells, each with a base station in the middle. Cell phone exchange – Calls are routed to the main exchange or direct to a base station by the cell phone exchange. Cell phone network – Base stations send ddigital information to the cell phone exchange over optical-fiber or copper cable. Communication satellite – Orbiting satellites are used to route calls between places not linked by a cable. Ddigital signal – Ddigital information is multiplexed, allowing multiple signals to be transmitted simultaneously. Fax machine – Fax transmissions are sent over the telephone network.Line-of-sight microwave link – Digitized call from local exchanges are often routed to the main exchange via terrestrial microwave links. Local exchange – The local exchange digitizes calls for long-distance transmission. Long-distance or international connection – Optical fibers are used to transmit long-distance calls, many optical fiber cables are laid on the seabed. Main exchange – The main exchange handles communications between ordinary phones and the cell phone network and routes long-distance and international calls. Microwaves – Ddigital information is sent from cell phones to base stations using microwave frequencies.Moving cell phone – Mobility is the prime asset of the cell phone. Optical fibers – Transmitting ddigital information by light pulses enables many calls to be sent down one fiber simultaneously. Satellite uplink – Encrypted ddigital information is sent to satellites using microwave frequencies. Seamless reconnection – As the cell phone moves from one cell to another, the call is rerouted from one base station to the next, without the break in the conversation. Urban cell – Cell are smaller in urban areas, giving the network greater capacity. Weakening Signal – As the cell phone moves farther away from the base station, the signal weakens. —- Tanenb aum, Andrew S. and Maareten van Steen. 2002. Distributed Systems Principles and Paradigms. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. B. 2 A process is often defined as a program in execution, that is, a program that is currently being executed on one of the operating system’s virtual pprocessors. An important issue is that the operating system takes great care to ensure that independent processes cannot maliciously or inadvertently affect the correctness of each other’s behavior. In other words, the fact that multiple processes may be concurrently sharing the same CPU and other hardware resources is made transparen't.Usually, the operating system requires hardware support to enforce this separation. B. 2 Threads in Distributed Systems – An important property of threads is that they can provide a convenient mearns of allowing blocking system calls without blocking the entire process in which the thread is running. This property makes threads particularly attractive to use in distributed systems as it makes it much easier to express communication in the form of maintaining multiple logical connections at the same time. We illustrate this point by taking a closer look at multithreaded clients and servers, respectively. B. 2Clients and Servers – In the basic client-server model, processes in a distributed system are divided into two (possibly overlapping) groups. A server is a process implementing a specific service, for example, a file system service or a database service. A client is a process that requests a service from a server by sending it a request and subsequently waiting for the server’s reply. This client-server interaction, also known as request-reply behavior. B. 2Communication between a client and a server can be implemented by mearns of a simple connectionless protocol when the underlying network is fairly reliable as in many local-area networks.In these cases, when a client requests a service, it simply packages a message f or the server, identifying the service it wants, along with the necessary input data. The message in then sent to the server. The latter, in turn, will always wait for an incoming request, subsequently process it, and package the results in a reply message that is then sent to the client. Page 657 Communication – All communication in the Web between clients and servers is based on the Hypertext transfer Protocol (HTTP). HTTP is a relatively simple client-server protocol; a client sends a request message to a server and waits for a response message.An important property of HTTP is that it is stateless. In other words, it does not have any concept of open connection and does not require a server to maintain information on its clients. The most recent version of HTTP is described in (Fielding et al. , 1999). Page 648 The World Wide Web (WWW) can be viewed as a huge distributed system consisting of millions of clients and servers for accessing linked documents. Servers maintain c ollections of documents, while clients provide users an easy-to-use interface for presenting and accessing those documents.The Web started as a project at CERN, the European Particle Physics Laboratory in Geneva, to let its large and geographically dispersed group of researchers provide access to shared documents using a simple hypertext system. A document could be anything that could be displayed on a user’s computer terminal, such as personal notes, reports, figures, blueprints, drawings, and so on. By linking documents to each other, it became easy to iintegrate documents from different projects into a new document without the necessity for centralized changes.The only thing needed was to construct a document providing links to other relevant documents (see also Berners-Lee et al. , 1994). Since 1994, Web developments are primarily initiated and controlled by the World Wide Web Consortium, a collaboration between CERN and M. I. T. this consortium is responsible for standar dizing protocols, improving interoperability, and further enhancing the capabilities of the Web. Its home page can be found at http://www. w3. org/. —– London, Sherry. 2000. Illustrator 9 f/x & Design. Arizona: The Coriolis Group, LLC. Page 427 Image resolution seems to be a tricky and complex topic the most people.I usually urge folks to work in pixels inside the Photoshop because pixels are fixed: A 900-pixel-wide image contains 900 pixels, regardless of its ppl. However, if the ppl is set to 300, the 900-pixel image prints at 3 inches wide; if the ppl is set to 100, the 900-pixel image prints 9 inches wide – but it still contains only 900 pixel across. Therefore, I find it much easier to think in pixels. —– Harb, M. 1989. Modern Telephony. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Page 9 The Telephone of Today The end user or subscriber is the main concern in any communication link. The subscriber can be either a private part or a business.In all cases, t he telephone set is used to transmit and receive, sequentially or simultaneously. The Telephone Set The telephone set is an instrument used to transmit and receive information or calls sequentially or simultaneously, thus permitting one party to communicate with another. For this communicate to take place, the telephone set must have the following component: a transmitter, a receiver, bell, a dialer, and a switchhook. Page 150-152 Cellular mobile communication is considered to be the breakthrough that could revolutionize the way businesses think about and use the most common of communication tools – the telephone.The cellular mobile telephone is found most often in cars, using low-power radio-frequency carriers to transmit and receive messages in small geographical units called cells. Before the introduction of cellular technology, most North American cities were using high-power radio-frequency transmitters for mobile telephone transmission. Even if a subscriber was lucky en ough to have the service, the number of channels was limited, and consequently the possibility of having access to a free line was very slim. Furthermore, once the subscriber got access to a line, the voice quality was poor and privacy almost nonexistent.This is not the case with the cellular mobile system. With the new technology, subscribers are guaranteed access to a free line 99. 9% of the time. The quality of the voice is comparable to that of regular telephone transmission, and privacy is guaranteed. Cellular mobiles became available in the United States in 1979, when Ameritech Mobile Communications began serving 2000 subscribers in the city of Chicago. By 1985, over 30,000 subscribers in the United Stated were using cellular mobiles, and this number continues to grow in the United States as well as in Canada, the European nations, Japan, and many more.Operation of a Cellular Mobile System Since is not feasible to set up a communication link between two moving cars using a sta ndard telephone line, it is necessary to use a wireless system with a radio antenna to send and receive telephone conversation over the air. The term â€Å"cellular† is derived from the word â€Å"cell. † Cities or towns are divided into geographic areas called cells, each with its own transmitter and receiver. Each cell has a low-power transmission capability, thus making its signal too weak to interfere with other cells with ssimilar frequencies.Generally, the frequency occupied by two subscribers within the same cell cannot be used by any other subscribers within that cell. The diagram of a cellular system shown in Figure 12. 1 demonstrates the process of relaying messages from car telephone (or portable telephone) to the cell site’s low-powered transmitter, to the Cantel switching office or MTSO (mobile telephone switching office), and to the wireline telephone company’s switching office, to allow interconnection with the existing telephone system. Th e message is â€Å"handed off† from one cell site transmitter to the next as the caller crosses a cell boundary, without interruption.A master computer keeps track of which cells are using which frequencies (see Figure 12. 1), and when a subscriber wishes to call a subscriber outside his or her cell, the computer may reassign frequencies. As a subscriber moves from one cell to the next, the assigned frequency may change, but the subscriber will at all times be served without interference (Figure 12. 2). —– Meyers, Mike. 2003. Introduction to PC Hardware and Troubleshooting. Asia: McGraw-Hill / Osborne. Page 390 Much of what makes modern computers so powerful is their ability to connection in small or large groups, or networks, and share files and resources.Every PC tech worth knowing the basics of networking. After all, why get into computing if you can’t while away an afternoon gaming with your buddies, all from the comfort of your computer chair? How Ne tworks Work A network enables two or more computers to share data, hardware such as printers, and even applications. The computers must have some conneactivity, of course: some way for the signal from one machine to reach the other. In addition, the hardware must be compatible and the software set up so that the receiving computer can understand what the sending machine sends.Think of two kids chatting over walkie-talkie as a network for communication to occur, the hardware has to be in range for the signal, and it has to be from the same set, and the kids need to speak the same language. Networks work ssimilarly. Computers connect in two basic ways: In dial-up networks in Local Area Networks. In dial-up connection, your computer uses a telephone line to connect to an Internet Service Provider (ISP), which then gives you access to other computers, perhaps at your office or somewhere on the Internet.Computers in a Local Area Network, on the other hand, are connected to a central box – either by cables or by radio waves – through which they can communicate with each other and, if some machine on the network has the appreciate connection, with other computers on the Internet. Let’s look at how both types of network function before we turn to the nuts and bolts of installing and setting up networks. Dial-Up Networks The most common network connection consists of three pieces: a modem, a working telephone line, and an ISP.The modem enables the computer to communicate via phone lines. The phone line provides the link between the modem and the computers at the ISP. The ISP computers connect to the Big Kahuna of all networks, the Internet. Property installed you to surf, shop, and otherwise explore websites hosted by computers all over the world. Tune in and turn on to dial-up networking. The venerable modem has to recent years been challenged by two new consumer technologies for accessing the Internet so-called â€Å"cable-modems† and DSL (Ddigital Subscriber Line) service.Your computer’s basic need for some kind of pipeline to communicate over hasn’t charged – just the choice of pipeline and the way it’s used. Both technologies take advantage of unused capacity on widely available transmission media. Cable modems use the cables already in place in many homes for receiving cable TV signals as their pipeline to the Internet, rather than the telephone system. The cable TV companies take advantage of the fact that their cable TV signals occupy only a fraction of the capacity of the coaxial cables running into your home.Adding a cable modem to your computer enables it to use the cable TV connection as its pipeline to the Internet. Cable modems aren’t actually â€Å"modems† at all in the sense that the signals they send and receive are entirely ddigital, but because they perform the same function, they go by the same name. you can install an external cable modem to a port (usually USB) on your computer. Page 394 Modem Technology The modem solves one of the problems with the use of analog voice lines to move ddigital data. Modems take incoming analog serial data – in this case, the signal coming over the telephone line- and turn it into ddigital serial data.Likewise, modems turn the signal flowing out of the PC into analog data than can be transferred over the telephone line. This process – called modulation / demodulation – provides the name for the technology: MOdulation / DEModulation, get it! Phone lines have a speed based on a unit called a baud, which is one cycle per second. The fastest rate that a phone line can achieve is 2,400 baud. Modem can pack multiple bits of data into each baud; a 33. 6 kilobits per second (Kbps) modem, for example, packs 14 bits into every baud: 2,400 x 14 = 33. 6 Kbps.It is technically incorrect to say, â€Å"I have a 56 K baud modem. † You should instead say, â€Å"’I have a 56 Kbps modem . † However, people use the term baud instead of bps so other that the terms have become functionally synonymous. Page 415 A network enables two or more computers to share data, hardware such as printers, and even applications. Computers connect in two basic ways: dial-up networks and Local Area Networks. A standard dial-up network connection consists of these pieces: a modem, a working telephone line, and an Internet Service Provider (ISP).To make a LAN work, you need to ensure those things: conneactivity, compatibility, and proper setup of hardware and software. Data is broken up and sent between computers in small chunks called packets and then reassembled. Page 1 Everything in your computer fits into one of two categories: hardware or software. Anything on your computer that you can touch is hardware. However, hardware alone cannot handle all of the PC’s complex activities – it needs the help of software. Software is the technical word for computer programs, the sets of instructions that tell the hardware how to do things.Computer programs are often compared to cooking rrecipes. The recipe tells you how to use the tools to manipulate the ingredients, and if all goes well, you produce something edible. In the same way, software instruct the hardware has it manipulates data to produce the desired results, whether that’s a memo, a ddigital picture, or an email message. Figure 1. 1 shows a sample of program code. —– Stamper, David A. 2001. Local Area Networks – Third Edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Page 135-137 Classes of Software The reason for having a computing system is to solve problems and accomplish the business’ work.The software that does this is called application software. Ordinarily, application software operates in an environment that makes writing and using the application software easier. The environment-creating software can be separated into network management, development and net work access. Application Software As we mentioned at the beginning of this section, the main reason we use computing system is to solve business or scientific problems. Thus, the computer and its extension, the network, are simply problem-solving tools.Tthroughout history, humankind has constantly built new tools and improved on those already invented. At the beginning of the computer era, computers were quite primitive tools (at least by today’s standards). Programmers at the dawn of the computing age needed to know not only the nuances of the business problem they were solving but also many of the intricacies of the hardware their solution would be running on. In today’s application environment, we have a supporting cast of software that helps to create an application environment that is mostly hardware independent.Operating System Software Today, we are so need to using OSs to create the system environment that we take them for granted. However, we were into the sec ond generation of computers before OSs appeared and into the third generation of computers before OSs became common. You may correctly infer from this that OSs are not absolutely necessary and, in the early years of personal computing, a vvariety of applications run without using the services of an OS. The IBM Personal Computer (PC) came equipped with a BASIC interpreter in a read-only memory.Thus, if you did not have the disk operating system (DOS), you could still use your computer by writing and running BASIC programs. Without DOS, BASIC was the operating environment. Furthermore, a few early programs functioned in a stand-alone mode. These programs where on a diskette and were loaded when the computer was loaded. In this mode, if you wanted to run another program, you swapped disk and rebooted. Without an OS, the application program is responsible for accomplishing many hardware-oriented functions such as input/output (I/O) and memory management.Because these task are common to all applications, software engineers developed OS software. The OS manages the resources of the computer and creates an application environment in which it is easier to develop and use application software because the OS takes care of a vvariety of functions formerly done by applications. Some of these functions are: †¢ Memory management †¢ File management †¢ User interface †¢ I/O interfaces †¢ Resource allocation †¢ Accounting †¢ Protection/security Today, systems running on a LAN are more sophisticated that the early systems that ran without an OS; a LAN node without an OS is unthinkable.Memory Management – When the computer is started, the OS is loaded into memory a certain portion of the available memory is constantly occupied by the resident portion of the OS. The OS manages the remaining memory and allocates it among itself and the requesting processes according to a memory management scheme adopted by the OS designers. Most current OS s use a memory management algorithm called virtual memory. With virtual memory, the disk is used as an extension of real memory. A process may be thought of as consisting of pages of data and code.File Management – A disk is a raw storage device. It has the ability to store bits of data but inherently does not have the ability to organize those bits into files, files into directories, and so on. The OS provides this level of disk organization. it establish the data structure that allows users to create partitions, directories volumes, and other disk subdivisions. Some file management systems allow multiple disks to be combines into one logical disk. The file management system allows users to create, delete, and access files.The file management system maintains the directory structure and store directory and file information such as the date and time last modified, end-of-file pointer, and the file or directories’ locations on disk. Obviously, there are fundamental aspe cts of using a system. User Interface – When a programmer begins to write a program, an environment is created for that user. If you are a programmer, you may need to use a text editor, compiler, link editor, and application program interface (API), which allows you to use OS procedures to carry out activities such as creating a new file, or starting a new process.Sometimes a compiler or interpreter includes the API interfaces. Protection Security – Today, nearly everyone is aware that security is an important aspect of computer usage. The OS provides the base on which security is established. We expect the OS to prevent user programs from crashing the system and to eliminate the intrusion of one program into the memory occupied by another program’s data. In shared systems, we also expect the OS and the file management system to provide certain levels of file security. Commonly, an OS will at least provide capabilities that allow administrators to define which u sers can read, write, or erase a file.